Chapter 2
Literature Review

2.0 Introduction

Military organisations are distinct from their civilian counterparts due to their operational use of force and the nature of their operations (Kuronen, 2017, p. 1). To the uninitiated civilian observer, the Armed Forces may appear overwhelming, incomprehensible, and anachronistic (Woll, p. 1). However, this perception is inaccurate. Rather, the Armed Forces is a historical institution grounded in culture, leadership, tradition, and obedience, which drive its success and operational effectiveness (Kuronen, 2017, p. 177). This section provides an overview of army leadership studies, highlighting both historical and contemporary theories of military leadership.

During the siege of Valletta in 1800, General Thomas Graham raised a battalion known as the Maltese Light Infantry (Staines, 2006, p. 5). Although disbanded in 1802, this battalion marked the beginning of a unique and enduring relationship between the Maltese Armed Forces and the British Army. Despite the AFM becoming an independent force over a century later, the influence of this long-standing relationship remains evident. Many AFM officers, including Brigadiers and Colonels, have attended leadership and management training at Sandhurst and the Irish Defence College (Staines, 2006, p. 68). These formative experiences have significantly shaped the leadership styles of Maltese military leaders.

2.1 Leadership Theory

Leadership has been studied for millennia, with early contributions from Egyptian and Roman philosophers such as Plato and Plutarch (Kumar, 2018, p. 15). Plutarch emphasised reason, self-control, and a love of power as key leadership qualities, asserting that individuals should pursue leadership only through reasoned judgement rather than vanity or rivalry (Plutarch, 2019, p. 5). Following the Enlightenment, Thomas Carlyle's Great Man Theory and Max Weber's theory of charismatic leadership highlighted the importance of personal attributes and charisma in shaping leadership (Kuronen, 2017, p. 160; Epley, 2015, p. 8).

However, these classical theories have not been universally accepted. Keegan (1988) suggests that military leaders act not only as commanders but also as kings, priests, diplomats, thinkers, and doers. Leadership within military institutions is multi-dimensional, requiring strategic direction and emotional intelligence (Kuronen, 2017, p. 170). Unlike civilian organisations, rebellion and dissent are rare in military settings, where institutional control is tightly maintained (Kuronen, 2017, p. 170). Leadership, therefore, is a complex phenomenon involving both management theory and personal characteristics.

Organisational culture is another critical element. The US Army defines it as a set of deeply held values and assumptions shaped by shared experiences (US Army, 1991, p. 1). Strong organisational cultures foster shared values and purpose, whereas weak cultures lack cohesion (US Army, 1991, p. 2). Effective military leaders can harness culture to enhance organisational effectiveness (US Army, 1991, p. 3). Enlisted personnel, for instance, serve fixed terms and cannot resign at will, adding another layer of complexity to leadership (Druckman, 1997, p. 258). New commanders must quickly establish or reinforce a strong culture to avoid resistance (US Army, 1991, p. 18).

2.2 Command

According to Lewinska (2015, p. 39), military leaders must have the authority to issue orders and bear responsibility, facilitating planning, organising, directing, and coordinating operations. Good management supports effective leadership, but the ability to command remains paramount. In the Polish Land Forces, command is the process by which a leader imposes their will on subordinates (Lewinska, 2015, p. 38).

Commanders must be credible; otherwise, they risk losing the respect of peers and subordinates (British Army Review, 2018, p. 25). During the Second World War, General Montgomery encouraged subordinate commanders to develop distinctive styles, such as wearing bomber jackets or carrying ornamental weapons (British Army Review, 2018, p. 28). Although somewhat outdated, these displays of confidence were tools of leadership. Today, leadership is still built on motivation, setting an example, and embodying military values (RMAS, 2015, p. 61).

2.3 Values and Behaviours

In 2015, General Sir Nick Carter introduced a leadership code at Sandhurst that outlined six core values: courage, discipline, respect for others, integrity, loyalty, and selfless commitment (RMAS, 2015, p. 4). These values reflect a chivalric warrior ethos and the ideal of the military officer (Kuronen, 2017, p. 165). Carter’s code aimed to establish a moral and ethical foundation for leadership in the Armed Forces (RMAS, 2015, p. 10).

Training emphasises adaptability under pressure and moral resilience (RMAS, 2015, p. 62). Effective leadership behaviours include:

Leading by example.
Encouraging thinking.
Applying reward and discipline.
Demanding high performance.
Encouraging team confidence.
Recognising individual strengths and weaknesses.
Striving for team goals.

2.4 Transactional Leadership

Most military commanders develop their leadership styles through professional and operational experiences (Kuronen, 2017, p. 175). According to Burns, Yuki, and Kellerman, military leadership generally falls into two categories:

Transactional Leadership
Transformational Leadership (Karl, 1987, p. 638)

Transactional leadership emphasises rules, procedures, and a reward-punishment system to achieve objectives (Nixon, 2012, p. 102). Often associated with day-to-day management, it is effective when problems are simple and well-defined (Hamad, 2015, p. 2). However, overuse can lead to demotivation and ineffectiveness in complex situations (Humphrey, 2014, p. 379).

The UK Ministry of Defence identifies three transactional styles (RMAS, 2015, p. 22):

Directive: "Do what I tell you." Effective in urgent situations but can alienate followers if overused.
Participative: Consensus-based; encourages collaboration and input.
Pacesetting: "Do what I do now." Sets high standards and leads by example but may become overly demanding.

2.5 Transformational Leadership

Transformational leadership focuses on changing the beliefs, needs, and values of followers (Karl, 1987, p. 648). Burns argues that transformational leadership fosters mutual elevation and moral agency (Karl, 1987, p. 648). Unlike transactional leadership, it builds deep interpersonal relationships based on integrity and justice (Karl, 1987, p. 650).

Avolio outlines four key components of transformational leadership (Agyemang, 2017, p. 486):

Idealised Influence – Leaders are admired and serve as role models.
Inspirational Motivation – Leaders inspire others to achieve more.
Intellectual Stimulation – Leaders encourage creativity and innovation.
Individual Consideration – Leaders attend to individual needs.

The MOD identifies three transformational styles (RMAS, 2015, p. 22):

Coaching: Focuses on long-term development through dialogue and support.
Affiliative: Promotes harmony and emotional support (Goleman, 2013, p. 64).
Visionary: Communicates a compelling vision with empathy and transparency.

While effective, visionary leadership can become overbearing if not balanced (Goleman, 2013, p. 59). In the military, transformational leadership is relatively new. Traditional leadership often relied on transactional methods. Nonetheless, transformational leadership is better suited to long-term strategic goals, despite challenges in trust-building and charisma (Hamad, 2015, p. 5–6).

2.5.1 Conclusion

Leadership is a broad and multi-dimensional concept encompassing management, culture, values, command, and emotional intelligence. Effective leaders require a diverse skill set to motivate and inspire followers. The literature identifies two principal leadership styles: transactional leadership, based on rules and rewards, and transformational leadership, grounded in the personal qualities of the leader. Although other leadership styles exist, these two dominate in the British Army and best reflect the leadership approaches within the Armed Forces of Malta.

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